New Publications Online From The US Forest Service Research and Development

Reserved and roadless forests

Azuma, David; Menlove, James; Gray, Andrew — Fri, 20 Nov 2009 18:32:36 -0500

Some 74 million acres of forest land, or 10 percent of all U.S. forest land, are permanently reserved from wood product utilization through statute or administrative designation. A large part of these lands is in wilderness areas, national parks, and national monuments. Although the primary reason for protecting many of the areas is not preservation of forest characteristics, the forest land they contain may be different from those of forest land in general, either regionally or nationally. For instance, national forest wilderness areas in the West are often at the highest elevations in the national forests. Because reserved forests are less intensively managed than other forests, at least through timber removal, differences in stand age and fuels accumulation would be expected.

Forest soils

Perry, Charles H. (Hobie); Amacher, Michael C. — Fri, 20 Nov 2009 18:30:07 -0500

Productive soils are the foundation of sustainable forests throughout the United States. Forest soils are generally subjected to fewer disturbances than agricultural soils, particularly those that are tilled, so forest soils tend to have better preserved A-horizons than agricultural soils. Another major contrast between forest and agricultural soils is the addition of external inputs (e.g., fertilizer, manure, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides) to agricultural soils, whereas forest plant communities rely on their inherent soil nutrient cycling to support plant nutritional needs. The forest floor is a unique feature of forest soils.

Timber growth, mortality, and change

Conner, Roger C.; Thompson, Michael T. — Fri, 20 Nov 2009 18:28:07 -0500

The previous section discussed trends in timber volume. Changes in volume often result from land-use change; that is, land entering or removed from the timber base. On those acres remaining forested, tree growth and mortality are the primary factors for volume change. Annual rates of growth and mortality often differ by species group, ownership, and geographic region. This section of chapter 5 focuses on these two elements of change and their net effect on timber volume at a given point in time.

Mapping forest resources of the United States

Fri, 20 Nov 2009 18:25:57 -0500

In this chapter, we present a collection of maps designed to portray the composition, structure, ownership, utilization, and spatial patterns of forest resources across the United States. This collection is the first comprehensive compilation of national-scale, forestry-related maps. These maps complement the information presented in the preceding chapters, but the maps and chapters are not directly dependent upon one another. Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act (RPA) tables and summaries provide direct sources for many, but not all, of the maps. Descriptions of the maps are provided below.

Changes in timber haul emissions in the context of shifting forest management and infrastructure

Fri, 20 Nov 2009 18:23:16 -0500

Although significant amounts of carbon may be stored in harvested wood products, the extraction of that carbon from the forest generally entails combustion of fossil fuels. The transport of timber from the forest to primary milling facilities may in particular create emissions that reduce the net sequestration value of product carbon storage. However, attempts to quantify the effects of transport on the net effects of forest management typically use relatively sparse survey data to determine transportation emission factors. We developed an approach for systematically determining transport emissions using: 1) -remotely sensed maps to estimate the spatial distribution of harvests, and 2) - industry data to determine landscape-level harvest volumes as well as the location and processing totals of individual mills. These data support spatial network analysis that can produce estimates of fossil carbon released in timber transport.

The relative impact of harvest and fire upon landscape-level dynamics of older forests: Lessons from the Northwest Forest Plan

Fri, 20 Nov 2009 18:21:30 -0500

Interest in preserving older forests at the landscape level has increased in many regions, including the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) of 1994 initiated a significant reduction in the harvesting of older forests on federal land. We used historical satellite imagery to assess the effect of this reduction in relation to: past harvest rates, management of non-federal forests, and the growing role of fire. Harvest rates in non-federal large-diameter forests (LDF) either decreased or remained stable at relatively high rates following the NWFP, meaning that harvest reductions on federal forests, which cover half of the region, resulted in a significant regional drop in the loss of LDF to harvest. However, increased losses of LDF to fire outweighed reductions in LDF harvest across large areas of the region. Elevated fire levels in the western United States have been correlated to changing climatic conditions, and if recent fire patterns persist, preservation of older forests in dry ecosystems will depend upon practical and coordinated fire management across the landscape.

Remote sensing change detection tools for natural resource managers: Understanding concepts and tradeoffs in the design of landscape monitoring projects

Fri, 20 Nov 2009 18:16:06 -0500

Remote sensing provides a broad view of landscapes and can be consistent through time, making it an important tool for monitoring and managing protected areas. An impediment to broader use of remote sensing science for monitoring has been the need for resource managers to understand the specialized capabilities of an ever-expanding array of image sources and analysis techniques. Here, we provide guidelines that will enable land managers to more effectively collaborate with remote sensing scientists to develop and apply remote sensing science to achieve monitoring objectives. We first describe fundamental characteristics of remotely sensed data and change detection analysis that affect the types and range of phenomena that can be tracked. Using that background, we describe four general steps in natural resource remote sensing projects: image and reference data acquisition, pre-processing, analysis, and evaluation.We emphasize the practical considerations that arise in each of these steps. We articulate a four-phase process that guides natural resource and remote sensing specialists through a collaborative process to articulate goals, evaluate data and options for image processing, refine or eliminate unrealistic paths, and assess the cost and utility of different options.

Forest resources of the Medicine Bow National Forest

Steed, Jim — Fri, 20 Nov 2009 17:13:56 -0500

The Interior West Forest Inventory and Analysis (IWFIA) Program of the USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, as part of our National Forest System cooperative inventories, conducted a forest resource inventory on the Medicine Bow National Forest using a nationally standardized mapped-plot design (for more details see "Inventory methods" section page 11). This report presents the highlights of this 2001 inventory using commonly requested variables and summaries. The data could be summarized in other ways for different purposes (see "For further information" on the inside back cover). The information presented in this report is based solely on the IWFIA inventory sample (USDA 1999). Supplementary documentation and inventory terminology can be located in USDA (2002). Additional data collected by the Medicine Bow National Forest and used separately or in combination with IWFIA data may produce varying results. Changes since the inventory, such as the impact of recent disturbances on the Forest, have not been incorporated into this report. Annual inventories will soon replace periodic inventories to help monitor these changes at shorter intervals.

Effects of light regime and season of clipping on the growth of cherrybark oak, white oak, persimmon, and sweetgum sprouts

Ficklin, Robert L.; Shelton, Michael G. — Fri, 20 Nov 2009 10:46:18 -0500

A mixture of cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda Raf.), white oak (Q. alba L.), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana L.), and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) seedlings was grown in shadehouses to simulate light conditions beneath a canopy. After the first growing season, two release treatments were implemented (released and not released), and treatments were conducted during two seasons (winter and spring). All seedlings were clipped at 2.5 cm from the groundline in height when treatments were imposed. Survival of persimmon and sweetgum was 100% following clipping. There appeared to be a weak seasonal effect on oak survival, especially for white oak; survival was 100% for winter clipping and 93% for spring clipping. The oaks were considerably smaller in height, diameter, and above-ground biomass than their competitors, and the competitors also produced more stems per rootstock than the oaks. Cherrybark oak was more productive than white oak espeically in the released treatment. The oaks tended to have a higher percentage of their total biomass in foliage when compared with their competitors. Stem wood density of the oaks was considerably greater than that of their competitors. Leaf characteristics of all species were very responsive to the treatments; specific leaf area was consistently greater for the no-release treatment for all species. Results of this study suggest that for oak sprouts to grow faster than their competitors they must begin with an initial size advantage.

Linking stakeholder research needs and the federal data quality act: a case study of an endangered forest shrub in the southeastern Unitd States

Fri, 20 Nov 2009 09:30:35 -0500

The need for knowledge, ranging from development of new products or processes to the effects of specific actions on the environment, is greater now than at any point in the past. The greater need for research has generated stakeholder involvement in the research process. As a result, all facets of research, from planning through publication of results, are often scrutinized by stakeholders. While the basic nature of scientific inquiry has not changed, now more than ever the credibility of scientific results is based on thorough planning, peer reviews of experimental designs and analytical approaches, and assurance that data are of the highest quality. Public interest in the quality and accuracy of federal research rose to a level that resulted in the Data Quality Act of 2001. The Act required the establishment of guidelines for Federal research organizations and cooperators. We present a case study of the U. S. Forest Service's policies for research quality assurance and quality control, including developing quality assurance statements and plans, as applied to comprehensive research on the federally-listed, endangered forest shrub pondberry (Lindera melissifolia (Walt.) Blume).

Population structure and genetic diversity in North American Hedysarum boreale Nutt.

Bushman, Bradley S.; Larson, Steven R.; Peel, Michael D.; Pfrender, Michael E. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:27:04 -0500

Hedysarum boreale Nutt. is a perennial legume native to western North America, with robust foliage in the late spring season. Due to its wide native range, forage value, and N2 fixation, H. boreale is of interest for rangeland revegetation and production. Seed cost is a major obstacle for utilization of H. boreale, primarily due to seed shattering and unreliable seed production, such that a need for improved germplasm exists. This study characterized the genetic relationships of H. boreale accessions, so plant breeders and geneticists will have the information necessary to maintain a broad genetic base within selected germplasm populations. Amplified fragment length polymorphism markers were used on 17 available accessions from Utah, Idaho, Colorado, and Alaska. Seventy percent of the total genetic variation was found within all 17 accessions, yet each accession showed significant isolation by distance. Genetic diversity within accessions was greatest in sites located in eastern Utah. The sole cultivar, Timp, had slightly greater genetic diversity than a collection made from the same site approximately 20 yr later. Two groups of metapopulations were identified in Utah, separated longitudinally approximately along the Wasatch mountain range.

Substrates and materials used for nesting by North American Osmia bees (Hymenoptera: Apiformes: Megachilidae)

Cane, James H.; Griswold, Terry L.; Parker, Frank D. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:25:25 -0500

Nesting substrates and construction materials are compared for 65 of North America's 139 described native species of Osmia bees. Most accounts report Osmia bees nesting in preexisting cavities in dead wood or pithy stems such as elderberry (Sambucus spp.), with cell partitions and plugs made from a pulp of finely masticated leaf tissue. Mud is widely used by species constructing free-form clumps of nest cells against stone surfaces. Some Osmia bees adopt abandoned nests of other Hymenoptera, particularly those of mud dauber wasps (Sceliphron spp.) and larger ground-nesting bees (e.g., Anthophora spp.). Reports of subterranean nesting by Osmia species are uncommon but possibly under-represent the habit, because subterranean nests are obscure and likely to be scattered. Ground- or surface-nesting habits are suspected for species that are absent from intensive trap-nesting programs in their native ranges but that otherwise have been commonly taken at flowers. The range of nesting habits and materials of European species are largely comparable, although records indicate that far more European species may nest in empty snail shells.

A restoration practitioner's guide to the restoration gene pool concept

Jones, Thomas A.; Monaco, Thomas A. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:23:56 -0500

Choosing plant materials for each desired species is often one of the most difficult steps in developing a restoration plan. The Restoration Gene Pool concept was developed to clarify the options available to the ecological restoration practitioner in terms of plant materials. We present a decision-making flowchart incorporating the issues delineated in the Restoration Gene Pool concept. We intend to provide practitioners with a framework to make objective and defensible plant materials choices in keeping with the objectives and philosophy of the restoration project. The flowchart consists of a series of boxes with single or multiple statements to be judged as true or false. The statements deal with issues such as genetic identity, plant metapopulation, functional guild, ecoregion, invasive weed presence, site soil and climate, endangered species presence, commercial seed availability, seed contracting potential, and availability of material bred for improved stress tolerance. Implementing the flowchart is a straightforward way to apply the Restoration Gene Pool concept to a particular project, but we encourage each practitioner to personalize the flowchart to make it as practical as possible for the situations that she or he most often encounters.

Making the decision to mitigate risk

Martin, Ingrid M.; Bender, Holly Wise; Raish, Carol — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:22:40 -0500

Why individuals choose to mitigate, downplay, or ignore risk has been a topic of much research over the past 25 years for natural- and human-created risks, such as earthquakes, flooding, smoking, contraceptive use, and alcohol consumption. Wildfire has been a relatively recent focus in the natural hazard literature, perhaps a result of several years of catastrophic fires in the western United States. The desire of many to live in areas that provide wildland amenities has led to significant population migration into rural, forested areas of the West, exacerbating the risks of large-scale, catastrophic wildfires. This migration has resulted in more people living in the wildland-urban interface(WUI), which has created many unique problems for homeowners as well as land managers. To mitigate or reduce the risks of wildfires to communities and homeowners in the WUI requires action across the landscape, which includes treating both public and private lands. Significant research has demonstrated that on private property, a home's exterior materials and its immediate surroundings principally determine the home's ignition potential during extreme wildfire events; additionally, the area that determines the home ignition zone during extreme wildfires occurs largely on private lands (Cohen 2004). Yet many homeowners do not undertake mitigating actions to protect their homes and potentially their lives from the risks of wildfire.

Tolerance of seven native forbs to preemergence and postemergence herbicides

Shock, Clinton C.; Ishida, Joey; Ransom, Corey V. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:21:10 -0500

Native forb seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial seed production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A major limitation to economically viable commercial production of native forb seed is weed competition. Weeds are adapted to growing in disturbed soil, and native forbs are not competitive with these weeds. There is a considerable body of knowledge about the relative efficacy of different herbicides to control target weeds, but few trials have tested native forbs for their tolerance to commercial herbicides.

Reintroducing native plants to the American West

Tilley, Derek J. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:19:53 -0500

The Aberdeen PMC is working together with other team members of the Great Basin Restoration Initiative (USDI-BLM) and the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project (USDAFS) to develop techniques to increase native plant diversity in crested wheatgrass monocultures. Since the early 1930s crested wheatgrass has been used in range seedings in the Intermountain West as a means to stabilize soils and sites after fires, improve forage production and compete against weeds such as cheatgrass. This introduced perennial bunchgrass has many outstanding characteristics that make it a valuable tool for recapturing and revegetating low precipitation areas in the arid to semi-arid west. However; the historical use of this species was to plant monoculture plantings instead of seed mixtures. This has led to the creation of millions of acres of crested wheatgrass monocultures covering broad expanses of western rangelands. In recent years land management agencies and private land owners have begun to realize the importance of diverse plant communities for the health and stability of ecosystem functions. The Aberdeen PMC is helping others look at ways to reduce crested wheatgrass dominance and to increase native plant diversity in these sites.

Plant guide: Parsnipflower buckwheat: Eriogonum heracleoides Nutt

Tilley, Derek; Ogle, Dan; St. John, Loren — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:18:36 -0500

Parsnipflower buckwheat is a perennial forb to subshrub with a branching woody stem. Leaves are covered with dense white hairs making the herbage appear a light green to blue-grayish color. The flowers are a creamy-yellow color and have six petals which are borne in simple or compound umbels. Plants of parsnipflower buckwheat can be distinguished from other closely related members of the genus by having a whorl of 5 to 10 leaves at midpoint of flowering stem; however in some subspecies this is not apparent (Freeman and Reveal 2005). The seeds, or achenes, are light to dark brown from 3 to 5 mm long. There are approximately 374,000 seeds/kg (170,000 seeds/lb).

Effects of 10 years of fire and climate variability on perennial grass cover in shortgrass steppe

Ford, P. L. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:16:48 -0500

The objective of this study is to examine the effects of 10 years of fire and climate variability on perennial grass cover in shortgrass steppe. The research is part of a long-term, 18-year study examining effects of fire in the growing vs. dormant season at return intervals of 3, 6, and 9 years. In general, the response of grasslands to fire seems to depend primarily on pre- and post-fire levels of precipitations (Ford, 1999). The southwestern United States has experienced drought 9 of the past 10 years, with an extreme drought occurring in 2002.

Impacts of native grasses and cheatgrass on Great Basin forb development

Parkinson, Hillary Ann — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:15:27 -0500

Land managers need more information on native forb growth and interactions between forbs and grasses to improve degraded sagebrush steppe habitats in the Great Basin, and to increase the diversity of revegetation seed mixes. This is especially important in areas infested with Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass), an annual grass present in more than 100 million acres of the Great Basin. To gather information on forb growth and measure the effects of both native grasses and B. tectorum on forbs, I conducted a greenhouse experiment with 5 native forbs: Lomatium sp., Eriogonum umbellatum, Machaeranthera canescens, Penstemon speciosus, Sphaeralcea munroana; two native grasses: Elymus elymoides and Poa sandbergii; and B. tectorum. Forbs were grown alone or with a grass, and were harvested after 6, 9 or 12 weeks of growth. Excluding Lomatium, which became dormant before week 12, forbs did not differ in shoot relative growth rate when growing alone, but the root relative growth rate of P. speciosus was 50% greater. Neither native grass reduced the biomass of any forb, but growth rate was reduced for two forbs.

Historical and modern disturbance regimes, stand structures, and landscape dynamics in pinon-juniper vegetation of the western U.S

Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:13:55 -0500

Pinon-juniper is one of the major vegetation types in western North America. It covers a huge area, provides many resources and ecosystem services, and is of great management concern. Management of pinon-juniper vegetation has been hindered, especially where ecological restoration is a goal, by inadequate understanding of the variability in historical and modern ecosystem structure and disturbance processes that exists among the many different environmental contexts and floristic combinations of pinon, juniper and associated species. This paper presents a synthesis of what we currently know, and don't know, about historical and modern stand and landscape structure and dynamics in three major and fundamentally different kinds of pinon-juniper vegetation in the western U.S.: persistent woodlands, savannas, and wooded shrublands. It is the product of a workshop that brought together fifteen experts from across the geographical range of pinon-juniper vegetation. The intent of this synthesis is to provide information for managers and policy-makers, and to stimulate researchers to address the most important unanswered questions.

Characteristics of western juniper encroachment into sagebrush communities in central Oregon

Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:07:52 -0500

Western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) woodlands in Oregon have expanded four-fold from 600,000 ha in 1930 to > 2.6 million ha, often resulting in the reduction and fragmentation of sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) communities. We documented dynamics of western juniper across the John Day Ecological Province in central Oregon by recording size class and growth form at 178 sites. We used stratified random sampling, with strata based on vegetation association (sagebrush, juniper, other) and distance from juniper stands. Only 26% of sites contained pre-settlement trees (i.e., > 140 years old), and < 5% of the 2,254 junipers tallied were pre-settlement trees. Mean densities of pre-settlement trees by stratum ranged from 0 to 18 trees/ha, suggesting that historically, juniper was widely scattered across the landscape. Current densities of post-settlement trees ranged from 75 to 211 trees/ha in non-woodland strata to 457 trees/ha in the juniper stratum. Juniper in non-woodland strata was most abundant in sites adjacent to juniper stands and in sagebrush communities. Mean densities of post-settlement trees were greatest in the > 2.0-m tall size class (82 trees/ha), followed by the 0.3-1-m tall size class (52 trees/ha). These densities pose substantial risk to sagebrush communities in central Oregon. Questions remain about the extent of western juniper woodlands across the species' range that have replaced or are expanding into sagebrush communities versus sites that historically supported woodlands. However, our findings suggest that within sagebrush communities of the John Day province, intensive management through removal of western juniper may be prudent, while retaining pre-settlement trees.

Factors affecting Bromus tectorum seed bank carryover in western Utah

Smith, Duane C.; Meyer, Susan E.; Anderson, V. J. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:06:12 -0500

Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.) is a winter annual weed that presents a serious obstacle to rangeland restoration in the Intermountain West. The objective of this study was to evaluate factors regulating the size and persistence of cheatgrass carryover seed banks on semiarid sites in western Utah. We prevented current-year seed production in each of four habitats, then tallied emerging seedlings over the next 4 yr. Two iterations of the study were conducted during consecutive years. One year before initiation of each iteration, we estimated seed rain at each site. Above-average precipitation in 1998-1999 resulted in relatively high seed rain (13942 seeds·m^-2) for the first iteration, whereas seed rain for the second iteration averaged only 3567·m^-2 because of drought conditions in 1999-2000. Mean total number of seedlings emerging from carryover seeds for the first and second iterations were 1304 and 270 seedlings·m^-2. Seedling emergence from carryover seed was positively correlated with production-year seed rain (R2 = 0.69). The fraction of seed rain that carried over tended to be lower when precipitation the year following production favored fall emergence of the transient seed bank. First-year emergence of carryover seeds averaged 96% of total emergence, whereas third-year emergence averaged < 1% and was zero for six of eight cases. Carryover seeds persisted somewhat longer at the xeric black greasewood site than at more upland sites. Our study shows that cheatgrass seeds rarely persist beyond the second carryover year even on semiarid sites. Emergence from the carryover seed bank can be predicted from site attributes and precipitation patterns in previous years.

Vascular plants and a brief history of the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands

Hazlett, Donald L.; Schiebout, Michael H.; Ford, Paulette L. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 15:21:10 -0500

Administered by the USDA Forest Service, the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands occupy 230,000 acres of public land extending from northeastern New Mexico into the panhandles of Oklahoma and Texas. A mosaic of topographic features including canyons, plateaus, rolling grasslands and outcrops supports a diverse flora. Eight hundred twenty six (826) species of vascular plant species representing 81 plant families are known to occur on or near these public lands. This report includes a history of the area; ethnobotanical information; an introductory overview of the area including its climate, geology, vegetation, habitats, fauna, and ecological history; and a plant survey and information about the rare, poisonous, and exotic species from the area. A vascular plant checklist of 816 vascular plant taxa in the appendix includes scientific and common names, habitat types, and general distribution data for each species. This list is based on extensive plant collections and available herbarium collections.

Interpreting historical streamflow data from a third-order Coastal Plain watershed: runoff response to storm events.

La Torre Torres, Ileana B.; Amatya, Devendra M.; Callahan, Timothy J. — Wed, 23 Sep 2009 11:27:57 -0400

Hydrological studies in the Southeastern U.S. have primarily focused on runoff generation processes in Piedmont and mountainous areas; much less is known about the relevant processes in Coastal Plain watersheds. Hydrologic processes between these two areas may differ considerably due to climate, topography and soil composition. Because of the population growth and subsequent development in the last few decades in the Lower Coastal Plain (LCP) of South Carolina (SC), it is important to understand natural hydrologic processes in the LCP for predicting hydrologic impacts of land management activities and designing Best Management Practices (BMPs). Past and current research and monitoring efforts by the US Forest Service and collaborators on protected lands within the Francis Marion National Forest (FMNF) in the LCP, 53 km northeast of Charleston, SC provide excellent opportunities to interpret hydrological processes such as rainfall-generated runoff under well-studied and controlled conditions.
This study describes relationships between seasonal rainfall patterns and stream flow for a third order watershed, Turkey Creek, using ten years of historical rainfall and stream flow data (1964 1973). Storm event runoff-rainfall ratios were used to describe baseline runoff as a function of season and rainfall amount. It was hypothesized that runoff-rainfall ratios are smaller during the summer season and greater in the winter due to generally reduced flows as a result of increased evapotranspiration (ET) from the forests during summer-fall, and saturated soils with sustained flows in winter-spring. Alternatively, runoff-rainfall ratios may be directly proportional to the antecedent soil moisture condition (as estimated by rainfall amount during the 5 and 30 days preceding the storm event). Results showed statistically significantly (p = 0.01) higher runoff rainfall ratios for storms occurring during wet antecedent conditions than for dry antecedent conditions.

Partial disturbance of resources foraged by Reticulitermes flavipes

Shelton, Thomas G.; Gerard, Patrick D.; Wagner, Terence L. — Tue, 17 Nov 2009 09:56:33 -0500

The introduction of termiticidal baits over 10 years ago has increased interest in the basic foraging behavior of pest termite species. Due to the amount of interference with foraged cellulose material (bait matrices, both treated and untreated) in bait stations as part of some control programs, the following study was initiated to examine the response of termites to very short term (1 wk) partial disturbances of a foraged resource.